Three-dimensional (3D) bioprinting has rapidly evolved from a prototyping technology to a transformative platform in tissue engineering and regenerative medicine. By integrating biomaterials science, cellular biology, and advanced manufacturing, 3D bioprinting enables the precise fabrication of tissue-like constructs with spatial control over cells, biomolecules, and scaffold architecture. Recent advances have focused on high-resolution printing, development of functional bioinks, vascularization strategies, patient-specific models, and clinical translation. Moreover, the emergence of 4D bioprinting introduces dynamic, stimuli-responsive constructs capable of structural and functional evolution over time. This review synthesizes recent advancements in 3D and 4D bioprinting, emphasizing technological innovations, biodegradable scaffold fabrication for bone regeneration, bioink design strategies, cell source selection, and translational challenges. Current limitations, regulatory considerations, and future prospects toward personalized medicine and organ fabrication are also discussed. The review highlights how interdisciplinary collaboration is accelerating the clinical applicability of bioprinted tissues and reshaping the future landscape of regenerative healthcare.
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There are no conflicts of interest to report from any of the authors.
The author handled all aspects of the study, including its design, data collection, analysis, and manuscript preparation.
No specific financial support from public, commercial, or non-profit funding agencies was received for this research.
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I am grateful for the expertise and help provided by all who contributed to this study and manuscript, and for the comments from anonymous reviewers.
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